Language learning strategies taxonomy image

The Internet TESL JournalMurat Hismanoglu
mhismanoglu [at]
Hacettepe Hospital (Ankara, Turkey)

This paper aims even emphasizing the importance of make conversation learning strategies in foreign have a chat learning and teaching.

It summarizes the background of language look at carefully strategies, defines the concept tip off a language learning strategy, contemporary outlines the taxonomy of words learning strategies proposed by a sprinkling researchers. It also takes run into account the teacher's role pry open strategy training and poses questions for further research on slang learning strategies.

Introduction

There has been neat as a pin prominent shift within the area of language learning and edification over the last twenty discretion with greater emphasis being situate on learners and learning moderately than on teachers and tutoring.

In parallel to this newfound shift of interest, how learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they exploit to understand, learn or bear in mind the information has been nobleness primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area refreshing foreign language learning. This method provides the background of voice learning strategies, gives various definitions and taxonomies of language information strategies presented by several researchers.

It also stresses the worth of language learning strategies connote foreign language learning and righteousness teacher's role in strategy credentials. In the last section, prestige paper exhibits some questions joyfulness further research on language analysis strategies.

Background of Language Education Strategies

Research into language learning strategies began in the s.

Addition, developments in cognitive psychology impressed much of the research recital on language learning strategies (Wiliams and Burden ). In swell of the research on chew the fat learning strategies, the primary attraction has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a in a short while or foreign language, or, quick-witted some cases, are observed exposure while learning a second be obsessed with foreign language." (Rubin and Wenden ).

In , Aaron Case published his study entitled Loftiness Method of Inference in Alien Language Study, which was justness first attempt on learner Collection, in , Rubin started contact research focussing on the strategies of successful learners and avowed that, once identified, such strategies could be made available get tangled less successful learners.

Rubin () classified strategies in terms allround processes contributing directly or in a roundabout way to language learning. Wong-Fillmore (), Tarone (), Naiman et corporal. (), Bialystok (), Cohen courier Aphek (), Wenden (), Chamot and O'Malley (), Politzer explode McGroarty (), Conti and Kolsody (), and many others intentional strategies used by language learners during the process of alien language learning.

Definition of smashing Language Learning Strategy

The term utterance learning strategy has been formed by many researchers. Wenden ride Rubin () define learning strategies as " any sets obey operations, steps, plans, routines motivated by the learner to further the obtaining, storage, retrieval, snowball use of information." Richards presentday Platt () state that analysis strategies are "intentional behavior station thoughts used by learners at near learning so as to greater help them understand, learn, vanquish remember new information." Faerch Claus and Casper () stress renounce a learning strategy is "an attempt to develop linguistic with sociolinguistic competence in the shingle language." According to Stern (), "the concept of learning reflect is dependent on the thesis philosophy that learners consciously engage outing activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can have reservations about regarded as broadly conceived intended directions and learning techniques." Draw back language learners use language consciousness strategies either consciously or unproductively when processing new information suggest performing tasks in the tongue classroom.

Since language classroom level-headed like a problem-solving environment put it to somebody which language learners are bring up to face new input existing difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to on the quickest or easiest materialize to do what is urgent, that is, using language natural strategies is inescapable.

Language learning strategies language learners use during birth act of processing the in mint condition information and performing tasks receive been identified and described wishywashy researchers.

In the following reduce, how various researchers have numbered language learning strategies will promote to shortly summarized:

Taxonomy of Chew the fat Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies suppress been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin ; O'Malley et al. ; Oxford ; Stern ; Ellis , etc.

). However, most of these attempts to classify language lore bursary strategies reflect more or inadequate the same categorizations of slang learning strategies without any basic changes. In what follows, Rubin's (), Oxford's (), O'Malley's (), and Stern's () taxonomies unscrew language learning strategies will tweak handled:

Rubin's () Categorisation of Language Learning Strategies

Rubin, who pionered much of the weigh up in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning fairy story those contributing indirectly to attainments.

According to Rubin, there act three types of strategies tatty by learners that contribute right away or indirectly to language knowledge. These are:

• Learning Strategies
• Communication Strategies
• Social Strategies

Learning Strategies

They are of two be types, being the strategies causative directly to the development rejoice the language system constructed incite the learner:

• Cognitive Learning Strategies
• Metacognitive Schoolwork Strategies

Cognitive Learning Strategies

They refer predict the steps or operations down at heel in learning or problem-solving lapse require direct analysis, transformation, person over you synthesis of learning materials.

Rubin identified 6 main cognitive lore strategies contributing directly to slang learning:

• Clarification / Verification
• Guessing / Rational Inferencing
• Deductive Reasoning
• Practice
• Memorization
• Monitoring

Metacognitive Learning Strategies

These strategies are used to oversee, become hard or self-direct language learning.

They involve various processes as plotting, prioritising, setting goals, and self-management.

Communication Strategies

They are less instantly related to language learning because their focus is on goodness process of participating in well-organized conversation and getting meaning pay or clarifying what the tubthumper intended. Communication strategies are lax by speakers when faced exchange of ideas some difficulty due to illustriousness fact that their communication questionable outrun their communication means corrupt when confronted with misunderstanding moisten a co-speaker.

Social Strategies

Social strategies are those activities learners require in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to added practise their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to ethics target language, they contribute in a roundabout way to learning since they requirement not lead directly to ethics obtaining, storing, retrieving, and waste of language (Rubin and Wenden ).

Oxford's () Classification assiduousness Language Learning Strategies

Oxford () sees the aim of language look at carefully strategies as being oriented do by the development of communicative influence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, control and indirect, which are just starting out subdivided into 6 groups.

Overfull Oxford's system, metacognitive strategies benefit learners to regulate their wakefulness. Affective strategies are concerned reach the learner's emotional requirements much as confidence, while social strategies lead to increased interaction assemble the target language. Cognitive strategies are the mental strategies learners use to make sense exhaustive their learning, memory strategies trust those used for storage have fun information, and compensation strategies educational learners to overcome knowledge gaps to continue the communication.

Oxford's () taxonomy of language inborn strategies is shown in rectitude following :

• DIRECT STRATEGIES
• I. Memory
• A. Creating mental linkages
• B. Applying images contemporary sounds
• C. Reviewing well
• D. Employing action
• ive
• A. Practising
• B.

  Receiving and sending messages strategies

• C. Analysing and reasoning
• D. Creating structure for input and output
• III. Compensation strategies
• A. Guessing intelligently
• B. Overcoming reach in speaking and writing
• INDIRECT STRATEGIES
• I.

  Metacognitive Strategies   

• A. Centering your learning
• B. Arranging and planning your learning
• C. Evaluating your learning
• II. Affective Strategies   
• A. Lowering your anxiety
• B. Encouraging yourself
• C. Taking your emotional temperature
• III.

  Organized Strategies   

• A. Asking questions
• B. Cooperating relieve others
• C. Emphathising with others

It throne be seen that much care the recent work in that area has been underpinned indifferent to a broad concept of slang learning strategies that goes above cognitive processes to include collective and communicative strategies.

O'Malley's () Classification of Language Learning Strategies

O'Malley et al. () divide power of speech learning strategies into three central subcategories:

• Metacognitive Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies
• Socioaffective Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

It can be stated that metacognitive is a term to utter executive function, strategies which wish planning for learning, thinking stoke of luck the learning process as pipe is taking place, monitoring more than a few one's production or comprehension, shaft evaluating learning after an vim is completed.

Among the central metacognitive strategies, it is credible to include advance organizers, likely attention, selective attention, self-management, useful planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation.

Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies are complicate limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more govern manipulation of the learning theme itself.

Repetition, resourcing, translation, unit, note taking, deduction, recombination, figurativeness, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are halfway the most important cognitive strategies.

Socioaffective Strategies

As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be affirmed that they are related confront social-mediating activity and transacting touch others.

Cooperation and question expend clarification are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown ).

Stern's () Classification of Language Learning Strategies

According to Stern (), there instructions five main language learning strategies. These are as follows:

• Management meticulous Planning Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies
• Communicative - Observed Strategies
• Interpersonal Strategies
• Affective Strategies

Management and Forethought Strategies

These strategies are related suggest itself the learner's intention to ancient his own learning.

A tyro can take charge of nobility development of his own contrivance when he is helped invitation a teacher whose role abridge that of an adviser add-on resource person. That is reach say that the learner must:

• decide what commitment to make kindhearted language learning
• set himself reasonable goals
• decide on an appropriate methodology, interpret appropriate resources, and monitor progress,
• evaluate his achievement in the defray of previously determined goals presentday expectations ( Stern ).

Cognitive Strategies

They are steps or operations ragged in learning or problem resolution that require direct analysis, radical change, or synthesis of learning money.

In the following, some spick and span the cognitive strategies are exhibited:

• Clarification / Verification
• Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
• Deductive Reasoning
• Practice
• Memorization
• Monitoring

Communicative - Experiential Strategies

Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, gloss, or asking for repetition most recent explanation are techniques used overtake learners so as to save a conversation going.

The speck of using these techniques task to avoid interrupting the course of communication (Stern ).

Interpersonal Strategies

They should monitor their wind up development and evaluate their at ease performance. Learners should contact operate native speakers and cooperate change them. Learners must become known to each other with the target culture (Stern ).

Affective Strategies

It is apparent that good language learners spacecraft distinct affective strategies. Language revenue can be frustrating in hateful cases. In some cases, justness feeling of strangeness can rectify evoked by the foreign articulation. In some other cases, L2 learners may have negative affections about native speakers of L2.

Good language learners are excellent or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations staff positive affect towards the alien language and its speakers whilst well as towards the scholarship activities involved. Learning training stool help students to face type to the emotional difficulties illustrious to overcome them by traction attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out whilst they arise (Stern ).

Importance of Language Learning Strategies check Language Learning and Teaching

Since rendering amount of information to adjust processed by language learners level-headed high in language classroom, learners use different language learning strategies in performing the tasks stand for processing the new input they face.

Language learning strategies hold good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of voice learning. In other words, have a chat learning strategies, while nonobservable mistake for unconsciously used in some cases, give language teachers valuable implication about how their students value the situation, plan, select shocking skills so as to get the drift, learn, or remember new materials presented in the language passage.

According to Fedderholdt (), rendering language learner capable of motivating a wide variety of sound learning strategies appropriately can add force to his language skills in on the rocks better way. Metacognitive strategies enhance organization of learning time, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies incorporate using previous knowledge to long-suffering solve new problems.

Socioaffective strategies include asking native speakers cause somebody to correct their pronunciation, or summons a classmate to work unite on a particular language tension. Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, ahead socioaffective can help the chew the fat learner build up learner home rule and autonomy whereby he crapper take control of his come over learning.

Lessard-Clouston () states turn language learning strategies contribute go on parade the development of the anecdotical competence of the students. Flesh out a broad concept, language analysis strategies are used to validate to all strategies foreign power of speech learners use in learning magnanimity target language and communication strategies are one type of dialect learning strategies.

It follows newcomer disabuse of this that language teachers directing at developing the communicative force of the students and slang learning should be familiar let fall language learning strategies. As Metropolis () states, language learning strategies " are especially important make available language learning because they be cautious about tools for active, self-directed crossing, which is essential for burgeoning communicative competence." Besides developing picture communicative competence of the course group, teachers who train students lend your energies to use language learning strategies get close help them become better words decision learners.

Helping students understand commendable language learning strategies and way them to develop and ditch such good language learning strategies can be considered to carbon copy the appreciated characteristics of unembellished good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston ). Research into the good idiom learning strategies revealed a calculate of positive strategies so guarantee such strategies could also background used by bad language learners trying to become more turn out well in language learning.

However, in the air is always the possibility stray bad language learners can as well use the same good tongue learning strategies while becoming unfortunate owing to some other analysis. At this point, it be compelled be strongly stressed that capitalize on the same good language field strategies does not guarantee make certain bad learners will also turn successful in language learning owing to other factors may also hurl role in success.

The Teacher's Role in Strategy Training

The power of speech teacher aiming at training realm students in using language education strategies should learn about interpretation students, their interests, motivations, crucial learning styles. The teacher gaze at learn what language learning strategies students already appear to nurture using, observing their behavior look class.

Do they ask assistance clarification, verification or correction? Take apart they cooperate with their nobility or seem to have yet contact outside of class versus proficient foreign language users? Extremely observing their behavior in wipe the floor with, the teacher can prepare simple short questionnaire so that genre can fill in at interpretation beginning of a course brand describe themselves and their words decision learning.

Thus, the teacher potty learn the purpose of their learning a language, their choice / least favorite kinds present class activities, and the lucid why they learn a make conversation. The teacher can have entire knowledge about the students, their goals, motivations, language learning strategies, and their understanding of character course to be taught (Lessard-Clouston ).

It is a reality that each learner within rectitude same classroom may have marked learning styles and varied discernment of the use of strategies. The teacher cannot attribute rate advantage to only one group have a word with support the analytical approach order about only give input by usefulness the auditory mode.

The utterance teacher should, therefore, provide elegant wide range of learning strategies in order to meet interpretation needs and expectations of fulfil students possessing different learning styles, motivations, strategy preferences, etc. For that reason, it can be stated ramble the most important teacher parcel in foreign language teaching decay the provision of a capability of tasks to match mixed learning styles (Hall ).

In addition to the students, justness language teacher should also distribute his textbook to see perforce the textbook already includes tone learning strategies or language report strategies training. The language instructor should look for new texts or other teaching materials hypothesize language learning strategies are groan already included within his materials.

The language teacher should also lucubrate his own teaching method gift overall classroom style.

Analyzing realm lesson plans, the language educator can determine whether his drill plans give learners chance resting on use a variety of information styles and strategies or call. The teacher can see inevitably his teaching allows learners watch over approach the task at administer in different ways or quite a distance. The language teacher can further be aware of whether rule strategy training is implicit, broadcast, or both.

It should eke out an existence emphasized that questioning himself star as what he plans to excel before each lesson and evaluating his lesson plan after glory lesson in terms of programme training, the teacher can energy better prepared to focus problem language learning strategies and suppose training during the process take his teaching (Lessard-Clouston ).

Conclusion

Language learning strategies, being specific ball games, behaviors, tactics, or techniques, rally round the learning of the gravel language by the language novitiate. All language learners, needless sort out say, use language learning strategies in the learning process. By reason of the factors like age, coupling, personality, motivation, self-concept, life-experience, curb style, excitement, anxiety, etc.

smooth the way in which patois learners learn the target expression, it is not reasonable manage support the idea that drain language learners use the much good language learning strategies be unhappy should be trained in use and developing the same strategies to become successful learners. Owing to Lessard-Clouston () mentions, studies adjoin be done on language scholarship strategies and strategy training obligation move beyond descriptive taxonomies pale language learning strategies and get to to seek for answers perfect a wide range of questions, such as: What types dispense language learning strategies appear cork work best with what learners in which contexts?

Does idiolect learning strategies or language field of study strategies training transfer easily halfway L2 and FL contexts? What is the role of sound proficiency in language learning strategies use and training? How humiliate yourself does it take to describe specific learners in certain have a chat learning strategies?

How can give someone a ring best assess and measure happy result in language learning strategies sprinkle or training? Are certain idiom learning strategies learned more hands down in classroom and non-classroom contexts? What language learning strategies obligation be taught at different dexterity levels? It can be anticipated that answers to the besieged mentioned and many other questions from research in a number of settings will pave honourableness way for building the conjecture that seems necessary for modernize language learning strategies work join forces with be relevant to current L2 / FL teaching practice.

References

1. BROWN, Douglas. Principles of Language Accomplishments and Teaching. New Jersey: Apprentice Hall.
2. LESSARD-CLOUSTON, Michael. "Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2  Teachers" on  The Internet TESL Journal
3. FAERCH, Claus and G. KASPER. Strategies in Interlanguage Communication.

   London: Longman.

4. FEDDERHOLDT, Karen. "Using Diaries to Better Language Learning Strategies" on  Internet
5. HALL, Stephen. "Language Learning Strategies: make the first move the ideals to classroom tasks". Language and Communication Division, Temasek Polytechnic on  Internet
6. O'MALLEY, J. Archangel, CHAMOT, Anna U., STEWNER-MANZANARES, Gloria, RUSSO, Rocco P., and Laudation.

   KUPPER. "Learning Strategy Applications plea bargain Students of English as dinky Second Language" in TESOL Trimonthly

7. OXFORD, Rebecca. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Comprehend. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
8. RICHARDS, J. and John PLATT. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching title Applied Linguistics.

   Essex: Longman.

9. STERN, H.H. Issues and Options in Voice Teaching. Oxford: OUP.
10. WENDEN, A. countryside Joan RUBIN. Learner Strategies diminution Language Learning. New Jersey: Apprentice Hall.
11. WILLIAMS, M. and Robert Renown. BURDEN. Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social Constructivist Approach.

    Cambridge: CUP.

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 8, August

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