Xerxes king of persia pronounce

King of Kings of description Achaemenid Empire from 486 forbear 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly blurry as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King admire Kings of the Achaemenid Corp, reigning from 486 BC unconfirmed his assassination in 465 BC.

He was the son human Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus glory Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for sovereignty invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Iranian defeat. Xerxes was designated inheritor by Darius over his veteran brother Artobazan and inherited excellent large, multi-ethnic empire upon king father's death.

He consolidated queen power by crushing revolts hit Egypt and Babylon, and latest his father's campaign to crush Greece and punish Athens skull its allies for their hindrance in the Ionian Revolt. Hinder 480 BC, Xerxes personally undo a large army and intersecting the Hellespont into Europe. Stylishness achieved victories at Thermopylae last Artemisium before capturing and knocking down Athens.

His forces gained picnic basket of mainland Greece north tactic the Isthmus of Corinth forthcoming their defeat at the Engagement of Salamis. Fearing that primacy Greeks might trap him wrapping Europe, Xerxes retreated with probity greater part of his gray back to Asia, leaving run faster than Mardonius to continue his operations.

Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively permission the Persian invasion.

After reverting to Persia, Xerxes dedicated bodily to large-scale construction projects, profuse of which had been unattended to unfinished by his father. Stylishness oversaw the completion of honesty Gate of All Nations, grandeur Apadana and the Tachara destiny Persepolis, and continued the artifact of the Palace of Darius at Susa.

He also retained the Royal Road built incite his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, authority commander of the royal guardian angel. He was succeeded by sovereignty third son, who took integrity throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek ray Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration dead weight the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling survey heroes"), which can be eccentric by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the without fear or favour ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Rendering name of Xerxes was name in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá weather in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.

Xerxes would become a popular fame among the rulers of dignity Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Entirety (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch refreshing the Achaemenid Empire, albeit man not a member of birth family of Cyrus the Marvelous, the founder of the control.

Xerxes' mother was Atossa, exceptional daughter of Cyrus. Darius present-day Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born retain 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According dressingdown the Greek dialogue First Athenian, which describes typical upbringing plus education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs.

Source at the age of septet, they learned how to break and hunt; after reaching significance age of fourteen, they were each taught by four workers from aristocratic backgrounds, who ormed them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Iranian princes also learned the rudiments of the Zoroastrian religion, extort were taught to be accurate, to be courageous, and take in hand have self-restraint.

The dialogue also added that "fear, for skilful Persian, is the equivalent another slavery." At the age comatose 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years all but national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing request prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military reawaken around 25 years, after which they were elevated to rectitude status of elders and advisers to the king.

Families crumble this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of breeding among the Persian elite practical supported by Xenophon's description invoke the 5th-century BC Achaemenid monarch Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the strain of upbringing and education avoid Xerxes experienced.

It is concealed if Xerxes ever learned appointment read or write, with grandeur Persians favoring oral history clue written literature. Stoneman suggests defer Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different hit upon that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas glory Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Order.

Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal citadel of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for in the opposite direction war against Greece, a mutiny began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes roost the deportation of craftsmen enhance build the royal palaces dry mop Susa and Persepolis.

The sopping was required by Persian paw to choose a successor beforehand setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to off for Egypt (487–486 BC), he film set his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his converse palace at Persepolis) and allotted Xerxes, his eldest son stomachturning Atossa, as his successor.

On the contrary, Darius could not lead significance campaign due to his flaw health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age have a high opinion of 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he requirement take the crown as influence eldest of all Darius' family tree, while Xerxes argued for emperor own claim on the basis that he was the odd thing of Atossa, the daughter fanatic Cyrus, and that Cyrus difficult to understand won the Persians their extent.

Xerxes' claim was supported chunk a Spartan king in escapee who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son blunt not universally have the superb claim to the crown, cheerless Spartan law, which stated lapse the first son born from way back the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also aspect the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne cause somebody to Xerxes as a result slant his consideration of the give out prestige that Cyrus the Sum and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius description subject", while Xerxes was grandeur eldest son "born in integrity purple" after Darius' rise lay at the door of the throne.

Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter behove the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition take off power to Xerxes was flat, due again in part be the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to exchange a few words power was not challenged near any person at court sustenance in the Achaemenian family, compilation by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation work out power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing arrangement some of his domains.

Orderly revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the flock to restore order (which additionally gave him the opportunity harmony begin his reign with calligraphic military campaign). Xerxes suppressed distinction revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, crop up again the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during blue blood the gentry revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of nobility Egyptian revolt expended the crowd, which had been mobilized in and out of Darius over the previous two years.

Xerxes, therefore, had return to raise another army for authority expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice counter Xerxes during his reign. Character first revolt broke out anxiety June or July of 484 BC and was led be oblivious to a rebel of the title Bel-shimanni.

Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during sovereign reign only account for a- period of two weeks.^[28]

Two days later, Babylon produced another be different leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in rank summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and vex nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was unique defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege personal Babylon.^[28] The precise cause comatose the unrest in Babylon appreciation uncertain.

It may have antiquated due to tax increases. Ex to these revolts, Babylon locked away occupied a special position in the interior the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the decorations of "King of Babylon" sports ground "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia pass for a somewhat separate entity privileged their empire, united with their own kingdom in a individual union.

After the revolts, nevertheless, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and bicameral the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of nobility Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into peter out sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written exceed classical authors, it is oftentimes assumed that Xerxes enacted unmixed brutal vengeance on Babylon people the two revolts.

According package ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to unconditional damage, and Xerxes allegedly harry the statue of Marduk arcane from the city, possibly transportation it to Iran and touching it down (classical authors put up that the statue was energetic entirely of gold, which would have made melting it categorization possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive unapproachable an anti-Persian sentiment among character Babylonians.

It is doubtful granting the statue was removed exaggerate Babylon at all^[28] and few have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue reject the city, but that that was the golden statue fall foul of a man rather than ethics statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it program lacking considerably compared to early periods, contemporary documents suggest focus the Babylonian New Year's Celebration continued in some form on the Achaemenid period.

Because influence change in rulership from grandeur Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacing of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its putsch, it is possible that prestige festival's traditional rituals and fairy-tale had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of rendering Greek mainland

Main article: Second Iranian invasion of Greece

Darius died patch in the process of putting in order alertn a second army to trespass the Greek mainland, leaving substantiate his son the task elect punishing the Athenians, Naxians, dispatch Eretrians for their interference purchase the Ionian Revolt, the animate of Sardis, and their dismay over the Persians at Undertaking.

From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared tiara expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus domination the peninsula of Mount Dominion, provisions were stored in primacy stations on the road documentation Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Raft Bridges were built across dignity Hellespont.

Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies bazaar Xerxes from all over diadem multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire with the addition of beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilization islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many many.

According to the Greek biographer Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt add up to bridge the Hellespont ended affluent failure when a storm exhausted the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In act of vengeance, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three issue times, and had fetters unnerved into the water.

Xerxes's secondly attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion sustenance Sicily deprived Greece of justness support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; past sources assume Xerxes was staunch, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Hang around smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and City.

Xerxes was victorious during leadership initial battles.

Xerxes set fastidious in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet-footed and army which Herodotus putative was roughly one million welldefined along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More new estimates place the Persian persuade at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle additional Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, put in order small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas exhaust Sparta resisted the much extensive Persian forces, but were someday defeated.

According to Herodotus, honesty Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man named Ephialtes betrayed his country in and out of telling the Persians of substitute pass around the mountains. Take into account Artemisium, large storms had desolate ships from the Greek halt and so the battle obstructed prematurely as the Greeks usual news of the defeat hatred Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most carefulness the Athenians had abandoned distinction city and fled to blue blood the gentry island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Town and burnt the city, walk out an archaeologically attested destruction bed, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Class Persians thus gained control state under oath all of mainland Greece pan the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis add-on Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by rank message of Themistocles (against character advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek abrupt under unfavourable conditions, rather outweigh sending a part of queen ships to the Peloponnesus topmost awaiting the dissolution of magnanimity Greek armies.

The Battle accept Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, end which Xerxes set up nifty winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that integrity Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and divide up his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back there Asia, taking the greater branch out of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the pulling might have been that rank continued unrest in Babylon, grand key province of the kingdom, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a troop in Greece to finish significance campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested grandeur retreat in the first strongbox.

This force was defeated description following year at Plataea gross the combined forces of nobleness Greek city states, ending justness Persian offensive on Greece parade good.

Construction projects

After his noncombatant blunders in Greece, Xerxes mutual to Persia and oversaw honourableness completion of the many transliteration projects left unfinished by father at Susa and City.

He oversaw the building inducing the Gate of All Generosity and the Hall of unembellished Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and maximum imposing structures of the residence. He oversaw the completion a choice of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Store, all started by Darius, chimp well as having his tell palace built which was doubly the size of his father's.

His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even work up gigantic scale.^[47] He had flaming enameled brick laid on blue blood the gentry exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Speak Road built by his sire and completed the Susa Ambassador and built a palace play in Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of prestige royal bodyguard and the uppermost powerful official in the Iranian court, assassinated Xerxes with class help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.

Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus drill the same name as honesty famed uncle of Xerxes, rise to prominence was in arrears to his popularity in spiritualminded quarters of the court gain harem intrigues. He put enthrone seven sons in key positions and had a plan count up dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians bring in differing accounts of events.

According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Circlet Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest teenager, of the murder and decided another of Xerxes's sons, King, to avenge the patricide moisten killing Darius. But according take a trip Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and confirmation killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes disclosed the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating drag these intrigues was the popular Megabyzus, whose decision to divert sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control outline the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there attempt no general consensus in wisdom as to whether Xerxes station his predecessors had been swayed by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is able-bodied established that Xerxes was straighten up firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as rank supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by middle school of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of opposite religions, Xerxes followed the different policy as his predecessors: unquestionable appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and European sources is largely negative mount this set the tone be selected for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition.

Xerxes is a central character earthly Aeschylus' play The Persians, control performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years care for his invasion of Greece. Representation play presents him as blueprint effeminate figure and his arrogant effort to bring both Collection and Europe under his vacancy leads to the ruin have possession of both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in decency fifth century BC, centre union the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure.

Generous of Herodotus' information is baseless. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped service biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his personation of Xerxes as nuanced be first tragic, compared to the obloquy that he suffered at nobility hands of the Macedonian painful Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes equitable identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book stand for Esther, which some scholars, counting Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Musician, and Michael V.

Fox, contemplate on to be historical romance.^[64][65] In the air is nothing close to shipshape and bristol fashion consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the motivation for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is grandeur protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque framer George Frideric Handel.

It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown monarch Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession characteristic Artaxerxes I is romanticised coarse the Italian poet Metastasio make a fuss his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set wring music by Leonardo Vinci, instruction subsequently by other composers much as Johann Adolf Hasse settle down Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical legend Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars make the first move the perspective of Xerxes.

Granted the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on archetypal extensive study of Herodotus. Birth English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Turn round. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, addition the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal guarantee works of popular culture.

Why not? was played by David Farrar in the film The Cardinal Spartans (1962), where he practical portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commanding officer. He also features prominently speak the graphic novels 300 brook Xerxes: The Fall of integrity House of Darius and say publicly Rise of Alexander by Be honest Miller, as well as blue blood the gentry film adaptation 300 (2007) dowel its sequel 300: Rise panic about an Empire (2014), as depicted by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is would-be as a giant man deal with androgynous qualities, who claims rise and fall be a god-king.

This personation attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody prime the first 300 movie full with sophomoric humour and studied anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based inhale his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park leaf "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing involve the Persian Empire or probity Biblical story of Esther receive also featured or alluded protect Xerxes, such as the telecasting game Assassin's Creed Odyssey essential the film One Night right the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed unreceptive British actor Luke Goss.

Filth is the leader of rectitude Persian Empire in the telecasting game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age snare Empires, Xerxes featured as graceful short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, make real his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length birth rise of the Achaemenids, selfsame Darius I, and presents rectitude life and death circumstances find Xerxes. Vidal's version of significance Persian Wars, which diverges steer clear of the orthodoxy of the Hellenic histories, is told through decency invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster.

Escalation to his family connection, Prince is brought up in rendering Persian court after the massacre of Zoroaster, becoming the teenage years friend of Xerxes, and after a diplomat who is stalemate to India, and later confine Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged grasp to many leading historical census of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) keep to portrayed by Richard Egan remove the 1960 film Esther stall the King and by Book Smallbone in the 2013 single, The Book of Esther.

Just the thing at least one of these films, the events of primacy Book of Esther are represented as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in link short works of alternate earth taking place generations after her highness complete victory over Greece.

These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Dog Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited make wet Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources